1


ECLIPSE PREDICTIONS

INTRODUCTION

	On Thursday, 3 November 1994, a total eclipse of the Sun will be visible from the southern half 
of the Western Hemisphere. The Moon's umbral shadow delineates a path through South America including 
southern Peru, northern Chile, Bolivia, Paraguay and southern Brazil.  The path crosses the South Atlantic 
and swings south of the African continent with no other landfall except for tiny Gough Island.  The path 
finally ends at sunset in the Indian Ocean south of Madagascar.  A partial eclipse will be seen from within 
the much broader path of the Moon's penumbral shadow including all of South America, southern Mexico 
and Central America, and most of Africa south of the equator (Figures 1 and 2). 

PATH AND VISIBILITY

	The first total eclipse to cross land since July 1991 commences approximately ten hours before the 
Moon reaches perigee.  The path of Moon's umbral shadow begins in the Pacific Ocean about 2000 
kilometers west of Peru.  As the shadow first contacts Earth along the sunrise terminator (12:02 UT), the 
path is 135 kilometers wide and the total eclipse lasts 1 minute 52 seconds.  Traveling southeast, the umbra 
quickly makes landfall along the southern coast of Peru at 12:12 UT  (Figures 3 and 4).  The mysterious 
sky drawings of Nazca lie just outside the path as the center line parallels the Peruvian coast for the next 
seven minutes.  The duration now lasts 2 and 3/4 minutes and the early morning Sun has an altitude of 27û 
above the eastern horizon.  At an elevation of approximately 2800 meters above sea-level,  the city of 
Arequipa lies near the northern limit and will witness a 58 second total eclipse at 12:15 UT.  Down on the 
coast, Mollendo stands on the center line but frequent marine clouds here may obscure the 2 minutes and 51 
seconds of totality.  As the path moves inland, it crosses the Peru-Chile border (~12:20 UT) and rapidly 
gains altitude as it sweeps into the western Andes.  Located 1300 meters above the coast, the small town of 
Putre lies on the center line where the central duration lasts 2 minutes 59 seconds with the Sun at 32¡.
	  Traveling with a surface velocity of 1.402 km/s, the leading edge of the umbra crosses the Chile-
Bolivia border even before the trailing edge has entered Chile from Peru.  The 175 kilometer wide path 
through western Bolivia crosses the altiplano, most of which has an elevation of 3000 to 4000 meters and 
enjoys the driest weather along the entire eclipse path.  Unfortunately, the area has few facilities and is 
difficult to reach.  Further east, the silver mining city of Potosi lies 45 kilometers north of the center line 
but will still enjoy a total phase lasting 2 minutes and 43 seconds.  By 12:30 UT, the leading edge of the 
umbra enters western Paraguay.  The duration on the center line is then 3 minutes 19 seconds, the Sun 
stands 41û above the horizon and the umbra travels with a speed of 1.088 km/s (Figure 5).  Continuing 
southeast, the southern limit skirts Asunci—n at 12:43 UT where a total eclipse of 41 seconds will be 
visible.  However, observers near the center line can expect a duration of 3 minutes and 40 seconds with a 
solar altitude of 49û.  After briefly crossing a narrow finger of land in northeastern Argentina, the umbra 
enters southern Brazil at 12:48 UT.  Porto Alegre is located 120 kilometers south of the path and will 
experience a partial eclipse of magnitude 0.966 at 13:00 UT.  On the center line, residents of Criciuma will 
witness a total eclipse of 4 minutes 2 seconds as the Sun stands 59û above the horizon.  
	After reaching the eastern coastline of Brazil, the shadow heads out across the south Atlantic Ocean 
where the instant of greatest eclipse1 occurs at 13:39:06 UT.  At that point, the length of totality reaches 
its maximum duration of 4 minutes 22 seconds, the Sun's altitude is 69¡, the path width is 189 kilometers 
and the umbra's velocity is 0.673 km/s.  The remainder of the path crosses open ocean with no further 
landfall with one minor exception.  Gough Island experiences maximum eclipse at 14:29 UT with an 
umbral duration of 3 minutes 46 seconds while the Sun stands at 53û.  Afterwards, the shadow passes 350 
kilometers south of South Africa at ~15:10 UT.  Cape Town witnesses a tantalizing partial eclipse of 
magnitude 0.886 at 15:08 UT.  Finally, the total eclipse ends at 15:16 UT as the umbra leaves Earth's 
surface along the sunset terminator in the Indian Ocean about 750 kilometers south of Madagascar.  In a 
period of 3 hours 15 minutes, the Moon's shadow sweeps along a path 14,000 kilometers long, 
encompassing 0.48 % of Earth's surface area.


GENERAL MAPS OF THE ECLIPSE PATH 

ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION MAP OF THE ECLIPSE PATH

	Figure 1 is an orthographic projection map of Earth [adapted from Espenak, 1987] showing the 
path of penumbral (partial) and umbral (total) eclipse.  The daylight terminator is plotted for the instant of 
greatest eclipse with north at the top.  The sub-Earth point is centered over the point of greatest eclipse and 
is marked at GE with an asterisk.  Earth's sub-solar point at that instant is also indicated by the label SS.
	The limits of the Moon's penumbral shadow delineate the region of visibility of the partial solar 
eclipse.  This irregular or saddle shaped region often covers more than half of the daylight hemisphere of 
Earth and consists of several distinct zones or limits.  At the northern and/or southern boundaries lie the 
limits of the penumbra's path.  Partial eclipses have only one of these limits, as do central eclipses when 
the shadow axis falls no closer than about 0.45 radii from Earth's center.  Great loops at the western and 
eastern extremes of the penumbra's path identify the areas where the eclipse begins/ends at sunrise and 
sunset, respectively.  If the penumbra has both a northern and southern limit, the rising and setting curves 
form two separate, closed loops.  Otherwise, the curves are connected in a distorted figure eight.  Bisecting 
the 'eclipse begins/ends at sunrise and sunset' loops is the curve of maximum eclipse at sunrise (western 
loop) and sunset (eastern loop).  The exterior tangency points P1 and P4 mark the coordinates where the 
penumbral shadow first contacts (partial eclipse begins) and last contacts (partial eclipse ends) Earth's 
surface.  If the penumbral path has both a northern and southern limit (as does the November 1994 eclipse), 
then the interior tangency points P2 and P3 are also plotted and correspond to the coordinates where the 
penumbral cone becomes internally tangent to Earth's disk.  Likewise, the points U1 and U2 mark the 
exterior and interior coordinates where the umbral shadow initially contacts Earth (path of total eclipse 
begins).  The points U3 and U4 mark the interior and exterior positions of the umbra's final contact with 
Earth's surface (path of total eclipse ends).
	A curve of maximum eclipse is the locus of all points where the eclipse is at maximum at a given 
time.  Curves of maximum eclipse are plotted at each half hour Universal Time (UT).  They generally run 
from the northern to the southern penumbral limits, or from the maximum eclipse at sunrise and sunset 
curves to one of the limits.  The outline of the umbral shadow is plotted every ten minutes in UT.  The 
curves of constant eclipse magnitude2 delineate the locus of all points where the magnitude at maximum 
eclipse is constant.  These curves run exclusively between the curves of maximum eclipse at sunrise and 
sunset.  Furthermore, they are parallel to the northern/southern penumbral limits and the umbral paths of 
central eclipses.  The northern and southern limits of the penumbra may be thought of as curves of constant 
magnitude of 0%.  The adjacent curves are for magnitudes of 20%, 40%, 60% and 80%.  The northern and 
southern limits of the path of total eclipse are curves of constant magnitude of 100%.
	At the top of Figure 1, the Universal Time of geocentric conjunction between the Sun and Moon 
is given followed by the instant of greatest eclipse.  The eclipse magnitude is given for greatest eclipse.  
For central eclipses (both total and annular), it is equivalent to the geocentric ratio of diameters of the Moon 
and the Sun.  Gamma is the minimum distance of the Moon's shadow axis from Earth's center in units of 
equatorial Earth radii.  The shadow axis passes south of Earth's geocenter for negative values of Gamma.
Finally, the extrapolated value of ÆT3 used in the calculations is given.


STEREOGRAPHIC PROJECTION MAP OF THE ECLIPSE PATH

	The stereographic projection of Earth in Figure 2 depicts the path of penumbral and umbral eclipse 
in greater detail.  The map is oriented with the point of greatest eclipse near the center and north is at the 
top.  International political borders are shown and circles of latitude and longitude at plotted at 20¡ 
increments.  The saddle shaped region of penumbral or partial eclipse includes labels identifying the 
northern and southern limits, curves of eclipse begins or ends at sunrise, curves of eclipse begins or ends at 
sunset, and curves of maximum eclipse at sunrise and sunset.  Curves of constant eclipse magnitude are 
plotted for 20%, 40%, 60% and 80%, as are the limits of the path of total eclipse.  Also included are curves 
of greatest eclipse for every thirty minutes Universal Time.
	Figures 1 and 2 may be used to quickly determine the approximate time and magnitude of greatest 
eclipse for any location from which the eclipse is visible.
	
EQUIDISTANT CONIC PROJECTION MAPS OF THE ECLIPSE PATH

	Figures 3, 4, and 5 are equidistant conic projection maps which isolate specific regions of the 
eclipse path.  The projection was selected to minimize distortion over the regions depicted.  Once again, 
curves of maximum eclipse and constant eclipse magnitude are plotted along with identifying labels.  A 
linear scale is included for estimating approximate distances (kilometers) in each figure.  Within the 
northern and southern limits of the path of totality, the outline of the umbral shadow is plotted at ten 
minute intervals.  Figure 3 is drawn at a scale of ~1:31,800,000, while figures 4 and 5 are drawn at a scale 
of ~1:8,560,000.  All three figures include the positions of many of the larger cities or metropolitan areas 
in and near the central path.  The size of each city is logarithmically proportional to its population 
according to 1990 census data.  The last two figures also include the center line of the umbral path.

ELEMENTS, SHADOW CONTACTS AND ECLIPSE PATH TABLES

	The geocentric ephemeris for the Moon and Sun, various parameters and constants used in the 
predictions, the besselian elements (polynomial form) are given in Table 1.  The eclipse predictions and 
elements were derived from solar and lunar data contained in the DE200 and LE200 ephemerides developed 
jointly by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory and the U. S. Naval Observatory for use in the Astronomical 
Almanac for 1984 and after.  Unless otherwise stated, all predictions are based on center of mass positions 
for the Sun and Moon with no corrections made for center of figure, center of motion, lunar limb profile or 
atmospheric refraction.  Furthermore, these predictions depart from IAU convention by using a smaller 
constant for the mean lunar radius k for all umbral contacts (see: LUNAR LIMB PROFILE).  Times are 
expressed in either Terrestrial Dynamical Time (TDT) or in Universal Time (UT), where the best value of 
ÆT available at the time of preparation is used.
	Table 2 lists all external and internal contacts of penumbral and umbral shadows with Earth.  They 
include TDT times and geodetic coordinates both with and without corrections for ÆT.  These contacts are 
defined as follows:
P1 - Instant of first external tangency of penumbral shadow cone with Earth's limb.
	(partial eclipse begins)
P2 - Instant of first internal tangency of penumbral shadow cone with Earth's limb.
P2 - Instant of last internal tangency of penumbral shadow cone with Earth's limb.
P4 - Instant of last external tangency of penumbral shadow cone with Earth's limb.
	(partial eclipse ends)

U1 - Instant of first external tangency of umbral shadow cone with Earth's limb.
	(umbral eclipse begins)
U2 - Instant of first internal tangency of umbral shadow cone with Earth's limb.
U2 - Instant of last internal tangency of umbral shadow cone with Earth's limb.
U4 - Instant of last external tangency of umbral shadow cone with Earth's limb.
	(umbral eclipse ends)

Similarly, the northern and southern extremes of the penumbral and umbral paths, and extreme limits of the 
umbral center line are given.  The IAU longitude convention is used throughout this publication (i.e. - 
eastern longitudes are positive; western longitudes are negative; negative latitudes are south of the Equator).
	The path of the umbral shadow is delineated at five minute intervals in Universal Time in Table 3.  
Coordinates of the northern limit, the southern limit and the center line are listed to the nearest tenth of an 
arc-minute (~185 m at the Equator).  The path azimuth, path width and umbral duration are calculated for 
the center line position.  The path azimuth is the direction of the umbral shadow's motion projected onto 
the surface of the Earth.  Table 4 presents a physical ephemeris for the umbral shadow at five minute 
intervals in UT.  The center line coordinates are followed by the topocentric ratio of the apparent diameters 
of the Moon and Sun, the eclipse obscuration4, and the Sun's altitude and azimuth at that instant.  The 
central path width, the umbral shadow's major and minor axes and its instantaneous velocity with respect to 
Earth's surface are included.  Finally, the center line duration of the umbral phase is given.
	Local circumstances for each center line position listed in Tables 3 and 4 are presented in Table 5.  
The first three columns give the Universal Time of maximum eclipse, the center line duration of totality 
and the altitude of the Sun at that instant.  The following columns list each of the four eclipse contact 
times followed by their related contact position angles and the corresponding altitude of the Sun.  The four 
contacts5 identify significant stages in the progress of the eclipse.  The position angles P and V identify 
the point along the Sun's disk where each contact occurs6.  The altitude of the Sun at second and third 
contact is omitted since it is always within 1¡ of the altitude at maximum eclipse (column 3).
	Table 6 presents topocentric values at maximum eclipse for the Moon's horizontal parallax, semi-
diameter, relative angular velocity with respect to the Sun, and libration in longitude.  The altitude and 
azimuth of the Sun are given along with the azimuth of the umbral path.  The northern limit position angle 
identifies the point on the lunar disk defining the umbral path's northern limit.  It is measured counter-
clockwise from the north point of the lunar disk.  In addition, corrections to the path limits due to the lunar 
limb profile are listed.  The irregular profile of the Moon results in a zone of 'grazing eclipse' at each limit 
which is delineated by interior and exterior contacts of lunar features with the Sun's limb.  The section 
LIMB CORRECTIONS TO THE PATH LIMITS: GRAZE ZONES describes this geometry in greater detail.   
Corrections to the center line durations due to the lunar limb profile are also included.  When added to the 
durations in Tables 3, 4, 5 and 7, a slightly shorter central total phase is predicted.
	To aid and assist in the plotting of the umbral path on large scale maps, the path coordinates are 
also tabulated at 1¡ intervals in longitude in Table 7.  The latitude of the northern limit, southern limit and 
center line for each longitude is tabulated along with the Universal Time of maximum eclipse at each 
position.  Finally, local circumstances on the center line at maximum eclipse are listed and include the 
Sun's altitude and azimuth, the umbral path width and the central duration of totality.

LOCAL CIRCUMSTANCES TABLES

	Local circumstances from over 300 cities, metropolitan areas and places in South America, Central 
America and Africa are presented in Tables 8 through 13.  Each table is broken down into two parts.  The 
first part, labeled a, appears on even numbered pages and gives circumstances at maximum eclipse7 for each 
location.  The coordinates are listed along with the location's elevation (meters) above sea-level, if known.  
If the elevation is unknown (i.e. - not in the data base), then the local circumstances for that location are 
calculated at sea-level.  In any case, the elevation does not play a significant role in the predictions unless 
the location is near the umbral path limits and the Sun's altitude is relatively small (<15¡).  The Universal 
Time of maximum eclipse (either partial or total) is listed to an accuracy of 0.1 seconds.  If the eclipse is 
total, then the umbral duration and the path width are given.  Next, the altitude and azimuth of the Sun at 
maximum eclipse are listed along with the position angles P and V of the Moon's disk with respect to the 
Sun.  Finally, the magnitude and obscuration are listed at the instant of maximum eclipse.  Note that for 
umbral eclipses (annular and total), the eclipse magnitude is identical to the topocentric ratio of the Moon's 
and Sun's apparent diameters.  Furthermore, the eclipse magnitude is always less than 1 for annular eclipses 
and equal to or greater than 1 for total eclipses.
	The second part of each table, labeled b, is found on odd numbered pages.  It gives local 
circumstances for each location listed on the facing page at each contact during the eclipse.  The Universal 
Time of each contact is given along with the altitude of the Sun, followed by position angles P and V.  
These angles identify the point along the Sun's disk where each contact occurs and are measured counter-
clockwise from the north and zenith points, respectively.  Locations outside the umbral path miss the 
umbral eclipse and only witness first and fourth contacts.  The effects of refraction have been included in 
these calculations although no correction has been applied for center of figure or the lunar limb profile.
	  Locations were chosen based on position near the central path, general geographic distribution 
and population.  The primary source for geographic coordinates is The New International Atlas (Rand 
McNally, 1991).  Elevations for major cities were taken from Climates of the World (U. S. Dept. of 
Commerce, 1972).  In this rapidly changing political world, it is often difficult to ascertain the correct name 
or spelling for a given location.  Therefore, the information presented here is for location purposes only and 
is not meant to be authoritative.  Furthermore, it does not imply recognition of status of any location by 
the United States Government.  Corrections to names, spellings, coordinates and elevations is solicited in 
order to update the geographic data base for future eclipse predictions.

DETAILED MAPS OF THE UMBRAL PATH

	The path of totality has been plotted by hand on a set of five detailed maps appearing in the last 
section of this publication.  The maps are Global Navigation and Planning Charts or GNC's from the 
Defense Mapping Agency which use a Lambert conformal conic projection.  More specifically, GNC-18 
covers the South American section of the path while GNC-17 covers the South Atlantic (Gough Island).  
GNC's have a scale of 1:5,000,000 (1 inch ~ 69 nautical miles), which is adequate for showing major 
cities, highways, airports, rivers, bodies of water and basic topography required for eclipse expedition 
planning including site selection, transportation logistics and weather contingency strategies.
	Northern and southern limits as well as the center line of the path are drawn using predictions from 
Table 3.  No corrections have been made for center of figure or lunar limb profile.  However, such 
corrections have little or no effect at this scale.  Although, atmospheric refraction has not been included, its 
effects play a significant role only at low solar altitudes (<15¡).  In any case, refraction corrections to the 
path are uncertain since they depend on the atmospheric temperature-pressure profile which cannot be 
predicted in advance.  If observations from the graze zones are planned, then the path must be plotted on 
higher scale maps using limb corrections in Table 6.  See PLOTTING THE PATH ON MAPS for sources and 
more information.  The GNC paths also depict the curve of maximum eclipse at five minute increments in 
Universal Time [Table 3].

ESTIMATING TIMES OF SECOND AND THIRD CONTACTS

	The times of second and third contact for any location not listed in this publication can be 
estimated using the detailed maps found in the final section.  Alternatively, the contact times can be 
estimated from maps on which the umbral path has been plotted.  Table 7 lists the path coordinates 
conveniently arranged in 1¡Êincrements of longitude to assist plotting by hand.  The path coordinates in 
Table 3 define a line of maximum eclipse at five minute increments in time.  These lines of maximum 
eclipse each represent the projection diameter of the umbral shadow at the given time.  Thus, any point on 
one of these lines will witness maximum eclipse (i.e.: mid-totality) at the same instant.  The coordinates in 
Table 3 should be added to the map in order to construct lines of maximum eclipse.
	The estimation of contact times for any one point begins with an interpolation for the time of 
maximum eclipse at that location.  The time of maximum eclipse is proportional to a point's distance 
between two adjacent lines of maximum eclipse, measured along a line parallel to the center line. This 
relationship is valid along most of the path with the exception of the extreme ends, where the shadow 
experiences its largest acceleration.  The center line duration of totality D and the path width W are 
similarly interpolated from the values of the adjacent lines of maximum eclipse as listed in Table 3.  Since 
the location of interest probably does not lie on the center line, it is useful to have an expression for 
calculating the duration of totality d as a function of its perpendicular distance a from the center line:



				d = D (1 Ð (2 a/W)2)1/2 seconds				[1]

		where:	 D = duration of totality on the center line (seconds)
			W = width of the path (kilometers) 
			  a = perpendicular distance from the center line (kilometers)

If tm is the interpolated time of maximum eclipse for the location, then the approximate times of second 
and third contacts (t2 and t3, respectively) are:

		Second Contact:			t2 = tm Ð d/2 				[2]
		Third Contact:			t3 = tm + d/2				[3]

	The position angles of second and third contact (either P or V) for any location off the center line 
are also useful in some applications.  First, linearly interpolate the center line position angles of second and 
third contacts from the values of the adjacent lines of maximum eclipse as listed in Table 5.  If X2 and X3 
are the interpolated center line position angles of second and third contacts, then the position angles x2 and 
x3 of those contacts for an observer located a kilometers from the center line are:

		Second Contact:		x2 = X2 Ð ArcSin (2 a/W)			[4]
		 Third Contact:		x3 = X3 + ArcSin (2 a/W)			[5]

	where:	Xn = the interpolated position angle (either P or V) of contact n on center line
		 xn = the interpolated position angle (either P or V) of contact n at location
		 D = duration of totality on the center line (seconds)
		W = width of the path (kilometers) 
		  a = perpendicular distance from the center line (kilometers)
		       (use negative values for locations south of the center line)

MEAN LUNAR RADIUS

	A fundamental parameter used in the prediction of solar eclipses is the Moon's mean radius k, 
expressed in units of Earth's equatorial radius.  The actual radius of the Moon varies as a function of 
position angle and libration due to the irregularity of the lunar limb profile.  From 1968 through 1980, the 
Nautical Almanac Office used two separate values for k in their eclipse predictions. The larger value 
(k=0.2724880), representing a mean over lunar topographic features, was used for all penumbral (i.e. - 
exterior) contacts and for total eclipses.  A smaller value (k=0.272281), representing a mean minimum 
radius, was reserved exclusively for umbral (i.e. - interior) contact calculations of total eclipses [Explanatory 
Supplement, 1974].  Unfortunately, the use of two different values of k for umbral eclipses introduces a 
discontinuity in the case of hybrid or annular-total eclipses.
	In August 1982, the IAU General Assembly adopted a value of k=0.2725076 for the mean lunar 
radius. This value is currently used by the Nautical Almanac Office for all solar eclipse predictions [Fiala 
and Lukac, 1983] and is believed to be the best mean radius, averaging mountain peaks and low valleys 
along the Moon's rugged limb.  In general, the adoption of one single value for k is commendable because 
it eliminates the discontinuity in the case of annular-total eclipses and ends confusion arising from the use 
of two different values.  However, the use of even the best 'mean' value for the Moon's radius introduces a 
problem in predicting the character and duration of umbral eclipses, particularly total eclipses.  A total 
eclipse can be defined as an eclipse in which the Sun's disk is completely occulted by the Moon.  This 
cannot occur so long as any photospheric rays are visible through deep valleys along the Moon's limb 
[Meeus, Grosjean and Vanderleen, 1966].  But the use of the IAU's mean k guarantees that some annular or 
annular-total eclipses will be misidentified as total.  A case in point is the eclipse of 3 October 1986.  The 
Astronomical Almanac identified this event as a total eclipse of 3 seconds duration when in it was in fact a 
beaded annular eclipse.  Clearly, a smaller value of k is needed since it is more representative of the deepest 
lunar valley floors, hence the minimum solid disk radius and ensures that an eclipse is truly total.
	Of primary interest to most observers are the times when central eclipse begins and ends (second 
and third contacts, respectively) and the duration of the central phase. When the IAU's mean value for k is 
used to calculate these times, they must be corrected to accommodate low valleys (total) or high mountains 
(annular) along the Moon's limb. The calculation of these corrections is not trivial but must be performed, 
especially if one plans to observe near the path limits [Herald, 1983]. For observers near the center line of a 
total eclipse, the limb corrections can be closely approximated by using a smaller value of k which 
accounts for the valleys along the profile.
	This work uses the IAU's accepted value of k (k=0.2725076) for all penumbral (exterior) contacts.  
In order to avoid eclipse type misidentification and to predict central durations which are closer to the actual 
durations observed at total eclipses, we depart from convention by adopting the smaller value for k 
(k=0.272281) for all umbral (interior) contacts.  This is consistent with predictions published in Fifty Year 
Canon of Solar Eclipses: 1986 - 2035 [Espenak, 1987].  Consequently, the smaller k produces shorter 
umbral durations and narrower paths for total eclipses when compared with calculations using the IAU value 
for k.  Similarly, the smaller k predicts longer umbral durations and wider paths for annular eclipses.

LUNAR LIMB PROFILE

	Eclipse contact times, the magnitude and the duration of totality all ultimately depend on the 
angular diameters and relative velocities of the Sun and the Moon.  Unfortunately, these calculations are 
limited in accuracy by the departure of the Moon's limb from a perfectly circular figure.  The Moon's 
surface exhibits a rather dramatic topography which manifests itself as an irregular limb when seen in 
profile.  Most eclipse calculations assume some mean lunar radius which averages high mountain peaks and 
low valleys along the Moon's rugged limb.  Such an approximation is acceptable for many applications, 
but if higher accuracy is needed, the Moon's actual limb profile must be considered.  Fortunately, an 
extensive body of knowledge exists on this subject in the form of Watts' limb charts [Watts, 1963].  These 
data are the product of a photographic survey of the marginal zone of the Moon and give limb profile 
heights with respect to an adopted smooth reference surface (or datum).  Analyses of lunar occultations of 
stars by Van Flandern [1970] and Morrison [1979] have shown that the average cross-section of Watts' 
datum is slightly elliptical rather than circular.  Furthermore, the implicit center of the datum (i.e. - the 
center of figure) is displaced from the Moon's center of mass.  In a follow-up analysis of 66000 
occultations, Morrison and Appleby [1981] have found that the radius of the datum appears to vary with 
libration.  These variations produce systematic errors in Watts' original limb profile heights which attain 
0.4 arc-seconds at some position angles.  Thus, corrections to Watts' limb profile data are necessary to 
ensure that the reference datum is a sphere with its center at the center of mass.
	The Watts charts have been digitized by Her Majesty's Nautical Almanac Office in Herstmonceux, 
England, and transformed to grid-profile format at the U. S. Naval Observatory.  In this computer readable 
form, the Watts limb charts lend themselves to the generation of limb profiles for any lunar libration.  
Ellipticity and libration corrections may be applied to refer the profile to the Moon's center of mass.  Such 
a profile can then be used to correct eclipse predictions which have been generated using a mean lunar limb.
	Along the eclipse path, the Moon's topocentric libration (physical + optical libration) in longitude 
ranges from l= 0.0¡ to l=Ð1.6¡.  Thus, a limb profile with the appropriate libration is required in any 
detailed analysis of contact times, central durations, etc..  Nevertheless, a profile with an intermediate 
libration is valuable for general planning for any point along the path.  The center of mass corrected lunar 
limb profile presented in Figure 6 is for the center line at 12:40 UT.  At that time, the Moon's topocentric 
librations are l=Ð0.30¡, b=+0.10¡ and c=+19.65¡, and the apparent topocentric semi-diameters of the Sun and 
Moon are 967.4 and 1015.6 arc-seconds respectively.  The Moon's angular velocity with respect to the Sun 
is 0.446 arc-seconds per second.
	The radial scale of the profile in Figure 6 (see scale to upper left) is greatly exaggerated so that the 
true limb's departure from the mean lunar limb is readily apparent.  The mean limb with respect to the 
center of figure of Watts' original data is shown along with the mean limb with respect to the center of 
mass.  Note that all the predictions presented in this paper are calculated with respect to the latter limb 
unless otherwise noted.  Position angles of various lunar features can be read using the protractor in the 
center of the diagram.  The position angles of second and third contact are clearly marked along with the 
north pole of the Moon's axis of rotation and the observer's zenith at mid-totality.  The dashed line arrows 
identify the points on the limb which define the northern and southern limits of the path.  To the upper left 
of the profile are the Moon's mean lunar radius k (expressed in Earth equatorial radii), topocentric semi-
diameter SD and horizontal parallax HP.  As discussed in the section MEAN LUNAR RADIUS, the Moon's 
mean radius k (k=0.2722810) is smaller than the adopted IAU value (k=0.2725076).  To the upper right of 
the profile are the Sun's semi-diameter SUN SD, the angular velocity of the Moon with respect to the Sun 
VELOC. and the position angle of the path's northern/southern limit axis LIMITS.  In the lower right 
are the Universal Times of the four contacts and maximum eclipse.  The geographic coordinates and local 
circumstances at maximum eclipse are given along the bottom of the figure.
	In investigations where accurate contact times are needed, the lunar limb profile can be used to 
correct the nominal or mean limb predictions.  For any given position angle, there will be a high mountain 
(annular eclipses) or a low valley (total eclipses) in the vicinity which ultimately determines the true instant 
of contact.  The difference, in time, between the Sun's position when tangent to the contact point on the 
mean limb and tangent to the highest mountain (annular) or lowest valley (total) at actual contact is the 
desired correction to the predicted contact time.  On the exaggerated radial scale of Figure 6, the Sun's limb 
can be represented as an epicyclic curve which is tangential to the mean lunar limb at the point of contact 
and departs from the limb by h as follows:

					h = S (mÐ1) (1Ðcos[C])				[6]

				where:	S = the Sun's semi-diameter
					m = the eclipse magnitude
					C = the angle from the point of contact

	Herald [1983] has taken advantage of this geometry to develop a graphical procedure for estimating 
correction times over a range of position angles.  Briefly, a displacement curve of the Sun's limb is 
constructed on a transparent overlay by way of equation [6].  For a given position angle, the solar limb 
overlay is moved radially from the mean lunar limb contact point until it is tangent to the lowest lunar 
profile feature in the vicinity.  The solar limb's distance d (arc-seconds) from the mean lunar limb is then 
converted to a time correction Æ by:
					 Æ = d v cos[X Ð C] 				[7]

		where:	d = the distance of Solar limb from mean lunar limb (arc-sec)
			v = the angular velocity of the Moon with respect to the Sun (arc-sec/sec)
			X = the center line position angle of the contact
			C = the angle from the point of contact

This operation may be used for predicting the formation and location of Baily's beads.  When calculations 
are performed over large range of position angles, a contact time correction curve can then be constructed.
	Since the limb profile data are available in digital form, an analytic solution to the problem is 
possible which is straight forward and quite robust.  Curves of corrections to the times of second and third 
contact for most position angles have been computer generated and are plotted in Figure 6.  In interpreting 
these curves, the circumference of the central protractor functions as the nominal or mean contact time 
(using the Moon's mean limb) as a function of position angle.  The departure of the correction curve from 
the mean contact time can then be read directly from Figure 6 for any position angle by using the radial 
scale in the upper right corner (units in seconds of time).  Time corrections external to the protractor (most 
second contact corrections) are added to the mean contact time; time corrections internal to the protractor (all 
third contact corrections) are subtracted from the mean contact time.
	Across all of South America, the Moon's topocentric libration in longitude at maximum eclipse is 
within 0.2¡ of its value at 12:40 UT.  Therefore, the limb profile and contact correction time curves in 
Figure 6 may be used in all but the most critical investigations.

LIMB CORRECTIONS TO THE PATH LIMITS:  GRAZE ZONES

	The northern and southern umbral limits provided in this publication were derived using the 
Moon's center of mass and a mean lunar radius.  They have not been corrected for the Moon's center of 
figure or the effects of the lunar limb profile.  In applications where precise limits are required, Watts' limb 
data must be used to correct the nominal or mean path.  Unfortunately, a single correction at each limit is 
not possible since the Moon's libration in longitude and the contact points of the limits along the Moon's 
limb each vary as a function of time and position along the umbral path.  This makes it necessary to 
calculate a unique correction to the limits at each point along the path.  Furthermore, the northern and 
southern limits of the umbral path are actually paralleled by a relatively narrow zone where the eclipse is 
neither penumbral nor umbral.  An observer positioned here will witness a solar crescent which is 
fragmented into a series of bright beads and short segments whose morphology changes quickly with the 
rapidly varying geometry of the Moon with respect to the Sun.  These beading phenomena are caused by the 
appearance of photospheric rays which alternately pass through deep lunar valleys and hide behind high 
mountain peaks as the Moon's irregular limb grazes the edge of the Sun's disk.  The geometry is directly 
analogous to the case of grazing occultations of stars by the Moon.  The graze zone is typically five to ten 
kilometers wide and its interior and exterior boundaries can be predicted using the lunar limb profile.  The 
interior boundaries define the actual limits of the umbral eclipse (both total and annular) while the exterior 
boundaries set the outer limits of the grazing eclipse zone.
	Table 6 provides topocentric data and corrections to the path limits due to the true lunar limb 
profile.  At five minute intervals, the table lists the Moon's topocentric horizontal parallax, the semi-
diameter, the relative angular velocity of the Moon with respect to the Sun and lunar libration in longitude.  
The center line altitude and azimuth of the Sun is given, followed by the azimuth of the umbral path.  The 
position angle of the point on the Moon's limb which defines the northern limit of the path is measured 
counter-clockwise (i.e. - eastward) from the north point on the limb.  The path corrections to the northern 
and southern limits are listed as interior and exterior components in order to define the graze zone. Positive 
corrections are in the northern sense while negative shifts are in the southern sense.  These corrections 
[minutes of arc in latitude] may be added directly to the path coordinates listed in Table 3.  Corrections to 
the center line umbral durations due to the lunar limb profile are also included and they are all negative.  
Thus, when added to the central durations given in Tables 3, 4, 5 and 7, a slightly shorter central total phase 
is predicted.

SAROS HISTORY

	The total eclipse of 3 November 1994 is the forty-fourth member of Saros series 133, as defined 
by van den Bergh (1955).  All eclipses in the series occur at the Moon's ascending node and gamma8 
decreases with each member in the series.  The family began on 13 July 1219 with a partial eclipse in the 
northern hemisphere.  During the next two centuries, a dozen partial eclipses occurred with the eclipse 
magnitude of each succeeding event gradually increasing.  Finally, the first umbral eclipse occurred on 20 
November 1435.  The event was an annular eclipse with no northern limit.  The followed five eclipses were 
also annular with maximum umbral durations decreasing from 74 to 7 seconds.  The nineteenth event 
occurred on 24 January 1544 and was of annular/total nature.  From the mid-sixteenth through mid-
nineteenth centuries, the series continued to produce total eclipses with monotonically increasing durations.  
This trend culminated with the total eclipse of 7 August 1850 which passed through the Hawaiian Islands 
and had a maximum duration of 6 minutes 50 seconds.
	While Saros 133 has continued to produce total eclipses throughout the twentieth century, the 
duration of each succeeding event is now decreasing as Earth moves progressively closer to perihelion.  The 
most recent eclipse of the series took place on 23 October 1976.  It was visible along the southeastern coast 
of Australia but the maximum umbral duration of 4 minutes 46 seconds occurred over the Indian Ocean.  In 
comparison, the maximum duration of the 3 November 1994 event is 4 minutes 23 seconds in the South 
Atlantic.  The next eclipse of the series will be 13 November 2012.  While the umbra crosses northern 
Australia, most of the path lies over the South Pacific where the maximum of 4 minutes 2 seconds takes 
place.
	During the next 150 years, each path moves deeper into the southern hemisphere as the maximum 
duration gradually decreases, dropping below the three minute mark with the eclipse of 8 January 2103.  
However, the eclipses from 21 February 2175 through 28 April 2283 exhibit a monotonic increase in 
duration from 2 minutes 50 seconds to 3 minutes 13 seconds.  This century long reversal of the decreasing 
trend is due primarily to the passage of Earth through the vernal equinox.  The effect briefly shifts the 
southerly migrating eclipse paths back towards the equator where the larger rotational velocity extends the 
duration of totality.  The duration drops once more with the last five central eclipses of the series.  The final 
total eclipse occurs on 21 June 2373 with a duration of 1 minute 24 seconds.  As the series winds down, 
the first of seven remaining partial eclipses occurs on 3 July 2391 and exhibits a magnitude of 0.867 from 
high southerly latitudes.  Saros 133 finally ends with its seventy-second event, the partial eclipse of 5 
September 2499.
	In summary, Saros series 133 includes 72 eclipses with the following distribution: 


Saros 133	Partial	Annular	Ann/Total	Total
Non-Central	19	0	0	0
Central	Ñ	6	1	46


WEATHER PROSPECTS FOR THE ECLIPSE

OVERVIEW

	The jumble of terrain in South America divides the eclipse track into many varieties of weather.  
Peruvian coastal plains that cling to the continental edge soar to the high mountain plateaus of Bolivia 
within a distance of only two hundred kilometers.  From the height of the plateau the shadow path descends 
through winding mountain valleys into swampy foothills to cross the rolling hills and river valleys of 
Paraguay.  Across southern Brazil, a vestigial mountain range challenges the Moon's shadow before the 
track splashes into the waters of the Atlantic Ocean.
	The eclipse observer can select his or her spot according to individual circumstances and 
willingness for adventuresome travel.  Cool windy beaches, freezing plains, tropical forests, prairie 
grasslands or subtropical cities - this eclipse covers them all!  And for those infected by a desire to travel to 
lost destinations, a tiny Atlantic island off the coast of South Africa offers a final land's end's view of the 
spectacle before the shadow heads back into space.

WHAT CONTROLS THE WEATHER?

	Weather is a product of winds and moisture.  During this eclipse, the winds are controlled by two 
large oceanic high pressure systems or anticyclones (Figure 7).  One of these lies west of Chile.  The other 
is found off the coast of South Africa in the South Atlantic.  These highs are permanent residents of the 
mid-ocean.  Though they wax and wane with each passing disturbance, they never disappear completely.
	A weaker continental low lying east of the Andes over Brazil divides the two highs.  This low is 
created by warmer temperatures over the land, and is easily displaced by stronger but more transient weather 
systems that approach from the Atlantic.  Because of the low, the weather across the eastern part of South 
America is more variable than that west of the Andes.  The Pacific high and the Brazilian low regulate the 
weather over the land portion of this eclipse.  The Atlantic high, lying closer to the African coast, has little 
influence over South America, but is the dominating system over the Atlantic portion of track.
	In the southern hemisphere, winds circulate in a counterclockwise direction around the high 
pressure cells.  On the Pacific side this brings a stubborn southerly wind onto the Peruvian coast.  This 
wind is further strengthened by local sea breezes that build the largest sand dunes in the world.  Sea breezes 
are onshore winds caused by the heating of the land along the coast.  The heated air rises upward and cooler 
ocean air then moves inland to replace it.
	The influence of the highs extends beyond directing wind flow.  Air inside anticyclones descends 
from higher levels in the atmosphere.  Air which is descending is warmed and dried.  At the ocean surface is 
the cold Peruvian Current, bringing water northward from the sub polar regions off Antarctica.  Warm air 
aloft and cool temperatures below combine to create a temperature inversion.  The marine inversion off the 
Peruvian coast is very similar to its cousin off the coast of California.  Both are very persistent.
	Inversions are stable phenomena because cold air is heavy and sinks to the bottom of the 
atmosphere, resisting mixing with warmer layers above.  They are of serious concern because marine 
inversions also collect water vapor from the ocean surface and become very cloudy.  The water vapor is 
trapped, unable to mix with drier parts of the atmosphere above.  The cloud isn't very deep, usually no more 
than about 900 meters (though occasionally up to 1500), but it is very resistant to clearing.  In the air 
above the inversion, brilliant sunshine is the rule.  Because the marine cloud is so shallow, it contains too 
little moisture to bring rain.  What moisture is available comes from a persistent drizzle or a heavy 
morning dew that feeds specially adapted plants.  Not much precipitation accumulates, resulting in a 
climatology that is both cloudy and dry.  When it does rain along the Peruvian coast, it usually falls on the 
slopes of the Andes above the inversion.
	About every three to seven years a phenomenon known as El Ni–o develops along the Peruvian 
coast.  This is a complex oscillation in the weather patterns across the equatorial Pacific which reverses the 
normal climatology of the tropics when ocean currents warm and trade winds weaken.  During El Ni–o 
years, the coasts of Ecuador and northern Peru typically become very wet and cloudy while droughts develop 
over southern Peru.  An El Ni–o began in late 1991 and weakened in the summer of 1992.  It was an 
unusual El Ni–o and did not completely fit the weather patterns which usually come with this oscillation.  
Its demise was also ambiguous and there were signs that the pattern was lingering into the spring of 1993.  
Since the El Ni–o occurred in 1991-92 and possibly into 1993, it would be unusual for another to develop 
in time for the November 1994 eclipse.  Most likely normal weather and cloud patterns will prevail.
	East of the Andes, the low pressure system that resides over Brazil draws air inland from the 
Atlantic Ocean.  Air flow from the Pacific is blocked by the mountains.  Storms and disturbances approach 
from the east.  November is late spring in the southern hemisphere, comparable to May in the north.  
Summer weather patterns are not fully established, but the winter is gone, taking most of the storms and 
blustery weather.  The eclipse takes place during a time of transition, but the weather may be quite 
distinctive for the season, and not just an average of the summer and winter patterns.  In particular, 
November is the sunniest month over some parts of the eclipse track.
	Above the surface, upper level winds blow mostly from the west except in Peru where they are 
more variable and occasionally from eastward.  Because they are blowing out of the Pacific anticyclone, 
these upper westerlies are usually dry and cloud-free.  Occasional weak disturbances will bring scattered 
showers and thundershowers to the Pacific side of the Andes, but these are much more likely on the other 
side of the mountain range, in eastern Bolivia.
	Figure 8 shows the large scale pattern of the cloud cover along the eclipse track.  This chart was 
constructed from 10 years of satellite data analyzed by Russian researchers9 at St. Petersburg (once 
Leningrad) University.  To calculate the mean amount of cloud, the Earth was divided into large blocks of 
latitude and longitude.  By averaging over a large area, the details of the cloudiness have been lost.  In 
particular, Figure 8 gives a poor representation of cloud patterns over the mountains but those over eastern 
South America and the oceans are well shown.  The most notable features are the high levels of cloudiness 
over the oceans and the sunnier conditions over Paraguay.
	Figure 9 is a much more detailed look at cloud cover along the eclipse track.  To make this graph, 
the eclipse track was plotted on daily satellite pictures taken near eclipse time during late October and most 
of November in 1991 and 1992.  Cloud cover was then estimated at each degree of longitude along the track 
and assembled into the graph.  
	During the 1991-92 El Ni–o, abnormally wet weather covered parts of Argentina, Paraguay, 
Bolivia and Brazil from mid-November 1991 to January 1992.  Since Figure 9 includes approximately one 
week of data from this period, the graph will show some biases which distort the relationship between the 
regions.  In particular, Peru and the altiplano may be slightly sunnier than would otherwise be the case 
while more easterly sections probably show a little too much cloud.  In November 1992, weather patterns 
seemed to have returned to those typical of non-El Ni–o years.  Figure 9 should be used cautiously though 
the general relationship between regions is probably reliable.  Figure 8 (based on a decade of satellite data) 
is more faithful to the large scale climatological cloud cover.  Longer term statistics (which also include El 
Ni–o years) can be found in Table 14.

DETAILS OF THE WEATHER

	The track can be divided into four weather regions, ordained mostly by the Andes mountains, and 
partially by the coastal mountains in Brazil.  From west to east these are:

		1) the Pacific coast of Peru and Chile
		2) the mountains and altiplano of Bolivia
		3) the Gran Chaco, Paraguay and Argentina
		4) the hills and mountains of southeast Brazil.

	In the southern hemisphere, winds blow clockwise around lows and counter-clockwise around 
highs.  The massive ramparts of the Andes deflect the winds from their usual direction and turn them into 
the many valleys and ridges of the mountains.  Each valley comes with its own winds, sometimes 
enhancing or retarding the larger pattern.  This wind flow is important to eclipse observers, especially those 
willing to take a chance in the rugged terrain.  Winds that flow uphill increase the chances of cloudiness.  
Those that blow downhill warm and dry the air, dissipating any cloud that may be present.



THE PACIFIC COAST OF PERU AND CHILE

	The Peruvian coast line runs nearly parallel to the eclipse track as it approaches from the northwest 
and the center line runs along the beaches between San Juan and Mollendo.  South of Mollendo it leaves the 
waterfront, turning eastward to climb the steep slopes of the western branch of the Andes, the Cordillera 
Occidental.  The offshore trade winds blow monotonously out of the south, but against the land they are 
turned by the mountains to flow parallel to the coast.  Some of the most persistent sea breezes in the world 
draw the winds inland and carry cloud against the slopes of the Andes.  Day after day a dismal low stratus 
cloud covers the coast, bringing dense chilly fog and persistent drizzle to the slopes.  By November the 
unyielding cloudiness of winter begins to feel the effects of the upcoming summer and the overcast becomes 
less tenacious.  Occasional sunny days replace the gloom, but the area remains heavily clouded with only a 
quarter to a third of the mornings showing clear skies.  Because the southerly trade winds strike the coast 
most directly at Tacna, the cloud piles up here more than in any other area.
	The secret to finding good eclipse weather along the Peruvian coast is to go inland and uphill.  As 
noted above, the marine cloud is not very deep - usually less than 900 meters, especially in November.  
Sites can easily be found which remain above the cloud since the land rises very steeply.  Satellite pictures 
show that the cloud hugs the contours of the land, flowing into every coastal valley, and bypassing every 
ridge and rise of land.  One ridge of higher ground that provides a vantage point from which to see the 
eclipse lies inland and south of Mollendo.  Day after day the satellite images showed this ridge protruding 
above the clouds in the early morning.  This ridge and the plateau beyond it is accessible from the Pan 
American Highway that leads from Arequipa to Mollendo.
	If traveling toward Mollendo from Arequipa, don't proceed beyond Guerreros Estaci—n unless the 
lower slopes are cloud-free.  Guerreros Estaci—n is a small railway stop, about 15 kilometers north of the 
center line, lying at 1140 meters above sea level.  This should be high enough to escape all but the deepest 
marine cloudiness, but it will come with a small time penalty because of its distance from the center of the 
track.  If you insist on trying for the center line at Mollendo, the best strategy is to find the edge of the 
marine cloud on the Arequipa highway and set up in the dry air just above.  You can find this point coming 
from either direction.  Those who are most daring will select a spot at the cloud edge, trusting that the gray 
mist will not move farther inland as the morning sun warms the slopes.  More cautious observers will give 
up a few seconds of totality to move farther uphill - a few hundred meters at least.  Even if Mollendo is 
clear on eclipse morning, there is a danger that clouds will reform and move inland as temperatures drop 
ahead of totality.  If the air is very humid or clouds have recently cleared, the danger is even greater and a 
higher altitude is prudent.  One clue to watch is the character of the vegetation.  Plants near the ocean get 
their moisture from the fog-drip of the marine clouds.  Where clouds are rare, the vegetation will be sparse 
or of a desert species.  Ask around locally.
	A more promising location near Arequipa lies at the point where the Pan American Highway 
crosses the center line on the slopes between Ilo and Moquegua.  It is a longer distance to travel but the 
combination of center line access and good weather prospects make it an attractive alternative.  The satellite 
images from 1991 and 1992 showed that this spot was cloud free about 60% of the time (longitude 71).  It 
is also readily accessible from Tacna.  Tacna itself is a cloudy spot, so the trip up the slopes to drier skies 
may require plenty of lead time.  Since the marine cloud may be pushed right up against the mountain side, 
conditions could be foggy and damp along the road.  Tacna has one of the highest frequencies of fog in 
Table 14.  If you travel at night to catch this sunrise eclipse at the center line, be especially generous with 
your time as visibility may then be at its poorest due to overnight and morning fog.  Roads northeast from 
Tacna lead directly to the center line near Tarata, rather than northwestward to Moquegua.  In Figure 9, this 
spot has a 15% greater frequency of sunny weather (longitude 70¡W) than at Moquegua.  If the route is 
passable, this may be the best location from Tacna, especially as it is a much shorter journey.
	The statistics at Arequipa, which Table 14 shows to be a very sunny location, are typical for the 
skies on the slopes above the marine cloud deck.  At an altitude of nearly 8500 feet, Peru's second city is 
well above the coastal cloud.  The climatological record shows that sunny skies are measured on two days 
out of three at eclipse time.
 	Chile also offers an opportunity to reach the middle of the eclipse path as the shadow track does 
cut the extreme northeast corner of the country.  The road leads northward and upward from Arica, and is 
apparently very rough.  Travel will likely be slow and bumpy, but the route does eventually lead onto the 
Altiplano and into La Paz.  The rail line from coastal Arica to the altiplano also merits some investigation.  
The center line above Arica enjoys a high frequency of sunshine - perhaps over 80%.
	

THE BOLIVIAN ALTIPLANO AND THE ANDES MOUNTAINS

	Imagine a wide flat plain, 170 kilometers across, 500 kilometers long, surrounded by some of the 
highest mountains in the world, and lying at 3 to 4 thousand meters above sea level - as high as Mauna 
Kea.  This is the altiplano or Puno of Peru and Bolivia, homeland of the Incas and magnificent mysterious 
ruins.  What a place to watch an eclipse! Although the site has its problems (especially access) the weather 
is cooperative.  Table 14 shows that Uyuni is the sunniest location in the Andes and Chara–a ranks only a 
little behind Arequipa.  Chara–a lies on the western side of the altiplano and Uyuni on the east.  The two 
straddle the eclipse line so their climatologies should give a reliable indication of the weather across the 
region.  Figure 9 is even more encouraging.  During the two years that these data were collected the 
altiplano was the sunniest location on the eclipse track.  The weather prospects in this area are very good 
for two reasons.  First, the altiplano is very high and the air contains less water vapor at 4 thousand meters.  
Second, the fortress of peaks to the east and west of the Puno wring most of the moisture from any breezes 
that approach from the tropical interior of the continent or from the Pacific.  Winds blow downhill from all 
directions, drying and dissipating most of the low and middle level clouds that approach.  High ice crystal 
cirrus is the most common cloud, blowing above and off the mountain tops, and often covering a large 
portion of the sky in a thin veil.  Cirrus would not usually hide the eclipse unless it is very thick.  
Although the frequency of completely clear skies is less than the cloudy coast of Peru , the typical cloud is 
thin and appears as a transparent cirrus veil or as small patches hanging off mountains in the distance.
	When bad weather does invade the plateau, it comes from strong weather systems approaching 
from Paraguay and Argentina.  These systems are high enough to spill over mountain barricades and can fill 
the altiplano with cloud for a day or two.  Some of these low pressure disturbances continue right on to the 
Pacific, bringing deep layers of cloud and even a little rain to Arequipa and other parts of the Peruvian coast.  
Because these storms contain plenty of high level cloud, they can be seen approaching from a long distance.  
Unfortunately, they are also very large systems and can be very difficult to avoid.
	Thunderstorms are legendary on the Puno with intense convection forming on nearly every 
afternoon in the summer.  Rain, hail, and strong gusty winds come with the build-ups, often bringing dust 
and blowing salt from the large salt flats.  Fortunately, summer is in its earliest stages in November, and 
the eclipse track crosses the driest part of the altiplano.  Moreover, the thunderstorms are mostly confined to 
the afternoons and the eclipse is over before 9 AM.  Since the source of the moisture that feeds the build-
ups comes from the east, sites on the west side of the Puno are more likely to be free of interference.  Sucre 
reports thunderstorms on 2 days of the month on average, but at Chara–a it is only once every three years.  
All-in-all it is difficult to pick the best location on the altiplano.  Figure 9 suggests that it might be on the 
west side near Chara–a while Table 14 votes for the east near Uyuni.  From the flow of the weather and 
sources of moisture, the west side appears more promising but in any case the difference is small.
	Travel on the altiplano is not difficult though access is not convenient to most of the eclipse track.  
Potos’ is the closest large city to the path, but it lies within the eastern branch of the Andes some distance 
below the altiplano.  To reach the center line on the altiplano is probably easier from Oruro, though the 
distance is in the neighborhood of 150 kilometers.  This is adventure traveling, and the 3800 meter altitude 
should not be taken lightly.  Acclimatization is required.  The brain doesn't want to think clearly in an 
environment with only 60% the oxygen content of sea level.  Eclipse observers should plan on several days 
at altitude beforehand and not a quick visit from sea level.  It is probably a good idea to limit the tasks you 
want to do during the 3 minutes of totality because of the chance of altitude-induced befuddlement.
	As the Moon's shadow leaves the altiplano, the weather becomes increasingly cloudy as the path 
descends to lower pressures on the Atlantic side of the Andes.  The increase is gradual at first, so locations 
around and east of Potos’ are quite promising.  One good site, where the Pan American Highway crosses the 
center line south of Potos’, had more than an 80% frequency of sunny skies in 1991 and 1992 according to 
Figure 9.  However this site could have been sunnier than usual over those two years.  La Quiaca in 
Argentina, the closest climatological station, shows a frequency of clear skies (13.7) much lower than 
Uyuni in Table 14, though still good for the region.
	Cloud cover is extremely variable within this region, depending on the exposure of each valley to 
the east and south winds that bring the moisture.  The mountain slopes heat quickly during the morning, 
drawing in moist air from the lowlands and foothills.  These winds are forced to travel uphill, gradually 
cooling and becoming more humid until cloud begins to form.  The clouds grow through the afternoon 
until deep enough to bring showers and thundershowers.
	Cloud-making processes also occur at night.  As long as winds are blowing uphill from the east, 
clouds will form along the Paraguay-Bolivia border.  Figure 9 shows this process very well.  Longitudes 
63¡W and 64¡W are the cloudiest of the whole track except along the Peruvian coast.  In Table 14, Tarija 
and Yacuiba have one of the lowest frequencies of sunny skies.  The area along the Bolivia-Paraguay border 
should be avoided for this eclipse.
	Before leaving Bolivia and the altiplano, it is worthwhile looking at the temperatures.  Though 
November is the warmest month, the altiplano is a very high plain and the mercury can drop sharply 
overnight.  Mean daytime highs at Chara–a reach a pleasant 21¡C (72¡F) but nighttime lows average Ð5¡C 
(22¡F) and the record low is a frigid Ð15¡C (5¡F).  Travel with warm clothing.  Since the eclipse occurs in 
the early morning on the altiplano, it is entirely possible that temperatures will be below the freezing 
point.  Make sure your equipment and clothing can handle it.

PARAGUAY AND THE GRAN CHACO

	The Chaco is a northward extension of the foothill plains of Argentina into western Paraguay and 
eastern Bolivia.  While the western portions are pretty cloudy, sunnier weather returns once the track crosses 
the Chaco and reaches Concepci—n.  In Figure 9, the frequency of sunshine rebounds to about 70% for the 
two years studied.  This is also reflected in Figure 8, which shows that large scale cloud cover reaches a 
minimum around Asunci—n during November.  The region is visited by traveling weather disturbances that 
bring cold fronts from the south into contact with the moist air masses from the northeast.  Extensive 
cloudiness and a catalogue of cloud types comes with these disturbances.  These larger weather systems can 
usually be forecast well in advance (at least as easily as in North America!) and a well-planned eclipse 
expedition will be able to respond several days ahead.  Most large disturbances have thinner spots and holes 
where mobile observers can gather.  This is not an unfailing rule, as some satellite pictures in 1991 and 
1992 showed the entire eclipse track covered in cloud from the Chaco to the Atlantic!  When the fronts are 
far to the south, unorganized afternoon cloudiness and thundershowers may build.  These usually start well 
after the appointed time of the shadow passage, leaving the mornings with brighter prospects.
	Figure 9 suggests that no particular direction is favored in central and eastern Paraguay and in 
Argentina.  The large scale weather patterns affect them all quite equally.  Table 14 is a little more 
ambiguous since a few sites (Villarrica in particular) claim a very high frequency of clear skies.  These 
conflict with the climatology of the area and are probably due to a very short period of record or erroneous 
data collection.  For a general look at the prospects of the region, the statistics for Asunci—n are best since 
it has the longest record of any in the country.
	The best strategy to handle weather in Paraguay and Argentina is to obtain forecasts several days in 
advance and have several widely dispersed sites available.  The middle of the track can be reached on good 
highways by traveling northwest, north and east out of Asunci—n, and west or south out of Foz do Iguacœ 
(Iguassu Falls).  While all three could be cloudy, chances are one will offer better prospects than the others.  
Remember that weather systems can be very large in this region, and considerable travel might be needed to 
find sunny skies.

EASTERN PARAGUAY, NORTHERN ARGENTINA, AND BRAZIL

	East of Iguassu Falls and the small piece of Argentina that sticks into the eclipse track, the 
Moon's shadow crosses an extensive area of rolling hills that grow gradually in height to form the 2000 
meter high Serra do Mar that guards the Atlantic coast of Brazil.  In November, the region is alternately 
affected by moist unstable air masses from the north and cooler southerlies from higher latitudes.  Cold 
fronts that separate the two air masses can generate large areas of heavy cloud and bring poor eclipse 
prospects.  Movement of fronts is impeded by the mountains and bad weather may linger in the area for 
several days, spawning a series of small rainy disturbances that keep the skies from clearing.  Though they 
are not high mountains, the Serra also provide some blocking of moist airflows from the Atlantic, 
preventing them from moving into Argentina and Paraguay.  Figure 9 shows this as a small decrease in 
sunny skies near Criciœma and along the Atlantic coast.  In particular, the coast itself at 49¡W is cloudiest 
of all.  The statistics in Table 14 reflect this climatology as well.  For instance, compare Posadas and 
Alegrete with Florianapolis and Porto Alegre.
	It is a good rule to avoid mountains during an eclipse, particularly those in which a nearby ocean 
is available to supply moisture.  Valleys have an unfortunate tendency to fill with cloud as second contact 
approaches and it is difficult to  find a site with reliable downslope drying winds in the jumble of terrain.  
The eclipse track through Brazil is just such an area and the statistics bear out its poor ranking.  It has one 
tempting asset - a four minute eclipse.  It is advisable to use weather forecasts a day or two ahead of time to 
plan your location.  However, a long trip may be necessary to find better weather, perhaps into Argentina or 
Paraguay.

OFFSHORE

	Cloudiness along the coast of Brazil is unusually high because of the blocking influence of the 
Serra do Mar, but the effect does not extend more than a hundred kilometers or so offshore.  Conditions 
improve farther out to sea.  Figure 8 shows that the area along the track is quite promising for several 
hundred kilometers beyond the coast.  While the Atlantic coast of Brazil was very close to the edge of the 
satellite images examined to develop the statistics in Figure 9, it appeared that offshore weather systems 
were spotted with numerous breaks and holes.  These holes and the patchy nature of the disturbances are 
probably due to the influence of the anticyclone which resides off the African coast.  Ships have excellent 
mobility with which to exploit these breaks, and a water-borne eclipse chase should be quite promising.  
Weather forecasts and satellite images can provide enough information to select a promising location on the 
track, but leave lots of time to reach it in case the distance to clear skies is large.
	Wave heights are a major concern for ship-board eclipse observers since they make photography 
difficult (and interfere with lunch!). Mean wave heights off Brazil range between 1 and 1.5 meters in 
November, a low value for the latitude.  This is comparable to wave heights in waters near the Philippines 
for those who caught the 1988 eclipse from the ocean surface.  The standard deviation of the wave height is 
close to one meter along the east coast of South America.  This means there is a 66% chance that wave 
heights will lie between one-half and 2.5 meters on eclipse day.  Of course the exact value on eclipse day 
will depend on prevailing winds and the location of nearby storms.
	Wave heights, cloudiness and dismal prospects for the eclipse all increase along the eclipse track as 
it moves onto the African side of the South Atlantic.  Gough Island off of South Africa has a high mean 
cloudiness and few sunshine hours for the month.  Once around Cape Horn however, brighter weather 
begins to return, though Figure 8 is only marginally encouraging.

SUMMARY

	This eclipse offers weather and adventure to suit all tastes.  The better weather prospects are on the 
west side of South America, either near Arequipa or on the altiplano.  Prospects along the eastern Andes are 
poor but promising through Paraguay and Argentina.  The Pacific and Atlantic coasts offer the poorest 
prospects.


OBSERVING THE ECLIPSE

EYE SAFETY DURING SOLAR ECLIPSES

	The Sun can be viewed safely with the naked eye only during the few brief minutes of a total solar 
eclipse.  Partial and annular solar eclipses are never safe to watch without taking special precautions.  Even 
when 99% of the Sun's surface is obscured during the partial phases, the remaining photospheric crescent is 
intensely bright and cannot be viewed directly without eye protection [Chou, 1981; Marsh, 1982]. Do not 
attempt to observe the partial or annular phases of any eclipse with the naked eye.  
Failure to use appropriate filtration may result in permanent eye damage or blindness! 
	Generally, the same equipment, techniques and precautions used to observe the Sun outside of 
eclipse are required [Pasachoff & Menzel, 1992; Sherrod, 1981].  There are several safe methods which may 
be used to watch the partial phases. The safest of these is projection, in which a pinhole or small opening 
is used to cast the image of the sun on a screen placed a half-meter or more beyond the opening. Projected 
images of the sun may even be seen on the ground in the small openings created by interlacing fingers, or 
in the dappled sunlight beneath a tree.  Binoculars can also be used to project a magnified image of the sun 
on a white card, but you must avoid the temptation of using these instruments for direct viewing.
	Direct viewing of the sun should only be done using filters specifically designed for this purpose.  
Such filters usually have a thin layer of aluminum, chromium or silver deposited on their surfaces which 
attenuates both the visible and the infrared energy.  Experienced amateur and professional astronomers may 
use one or two layers of completely exposed and fully developed black-and-white film, provided the film 
contains a silver emulsion.  Since developed color films lack silver, they are unsafe for use in solar 
viewing.  A widely available alternative for safe eclipse viewing is a number 14 welder's glass. However, 
only mylar or glass filters specifically designed for the purpose should used with telescopes or binoculars.
	Unsafe filters include color film, smoked glass, photographic neutral density filters and polarizing 
filters.  Deep green or gray filters often sold with inexpensive telescopes are also dangerous.  They should 
not be used for viewing the sun at any time since they often crack from overheating.  Do not experiment 
with other filters unless you are certain that they are safe. Damage to the eyes comes predominantly from 
invisible infrared wavelengths. The fact that the sun appears dark in a filter or that you feel no discomfort 
does not guarantee that your eyes are safe.  Avoid all unnecessary risks.  Your local planetarium or amateur 
astronomy club is a good source for additional information.

SKY AT TOTALITY

	The total phase of an eclipse is accompanied by the onset of a rapidly darkening sky whose 
appearance approximates that of evening twilight 30 to 45 minutes after sunset.  The effect presents an 
excellent opportunity to view planets and bright stars in the daytime sky.  Such observations are useful in 
gauging the apparent sky brightness and transparency during totality.  The Sun is in Libra and a number of 
planets and bright stars will be above the horizon for observers within the umbral path.  Figures 10 and 11 
depict the appearance of the sky from the western and eastern sections, respectively, of the South American 
path.  Venus is usually the brightest planet and can actually be observed in broad daylight provided that the 
sky is cloud free and of high transparency (i.e. - no dust or particulates).  During the Nov 1994 eclipse, 
Venus is only half a day past inferior conjunction and will be located a mere 5¡ west of the Sun.  Look for 
the planet during the partial phases by first covering the eclipsed Sun with an extended hand.  During 
totality, it will be almost impossible to miss Venus since it is so close to the Sun and will shine at a 
magnitude of mv=Ð4.0.  Although two magnitudes fainter, Jupiter will also be well placed 11¡ east of the 
Sun and shining at mv=Ð1.7.  Under good conditions, it may be possible to spot Jupiter 5 to 10 minutes 
before totality.  Mercury is approaching eastern elongation on 6 Nov and is located 18¡ west of the Sun at 
mv=Ð0.1.  Although a bit more challenging, it should still be easy to see provided skies are clear.  Spica 
(mv=+0.7) is 4¡ south of Mercury which may be used as a guide to locate it.  The most difficult of the 
naked eye planets will be Mars (mv=+0.7).  It is located 85¡ west of the Sun, and 14¡ west of Regulus 
(mv=+1.35).  Saturn is 115¡ east of the Sun and will be below the horizon for all observers in South 
America.  Other stars to look for include Antares (mv=+0.9v), Arcturus (mv=Ð0.04), Alpha and Beta Cen 
(mv=Ð0.01 & mv=+0.6v), Canopus (mv=Ð0.72), Sirius (mv=Ð1.46) and Procyon (mv=+0.38).
	The following ephemeris [using Bretagnon and Simon, 1986] gives the positions of the naked eye 
planets during the eclipse.  Delta is the distance of the planet from Earth (A.U.'s), V is the apparent visual 
magnitude of the planet, and Elong gives the solar elongation or angle between the Sun and planet.  Note 
that Jupiter is near opposition and will be below the horizon during the eclipse for all observers.
________________________________________________________________________

Planetary Ephemeris:   3 Nov 1994  14:00:00 UT    Equinox = Mean Date

Planet       RA        Dec        Delta      V  Diameter  Phase   Elong
           h  m  s    ¡  '  "                       "               ¡
Sun       14 33 59  Ð15Ð06Ð07    0.99193  Ð26.7  1934.9      Ð      Ð
Mercury   13 26 23  Ð06Ð48Ð50    0.92429   Ð0.1     7.3    0.47   18.5W
Venus     14 23  2  Ð19Ð46Ð46    0.27023   Ð4.0    61.8    0.00    5.4W
Mars      09 14 28   17 42 34    1.32296    0.7     7.1    0.89   85.3W
Jupiter   15 19 36  Ð17Ð31Ð09    6.36421   Ð1.7    30.9    1.00   11.2E
Saturn    22 32 52  Ð11Ð12Ð28    9.24022    0.2    17.9    1.00  114.8E
________________________________________________________________________

ECLIPSE PHOTOGRAPHY

	The eclipse may be safely photographed provided that the above precautions are followed.  Almost 
any kind of camera with manual controls can be used to capture this rare event.  However, a lens with a 
fairly long focal length is recommended to produce as large an image of the Sun as possible.  A standard 50 
mm lens yields a minuscule 0.5 mm image, while a 200 mm telephoto or zoom produces a 1.9 mm image.  
A better choice would be one of the small, compact catadioptic or mirror lenses which have become widely 
available in the past ten years.  The focal length of 500 mm is most common among such mirror lenses 
and yields a solar image of 4.6 mm.Ê Adding 2x tele-converter will produce a 1000 mm focal length which 
doubles the Sun's size to 9.2 mm.  Focal lengths in excess of 1000 mm usually fall within the realm of 
amateur telescopes.  If full disk photography of partial phases on 35 mm format is planned, the focal length 
of the telescope or lens must be 2600 mm or less.  Longer focal lengths will only permit photography of a 
portion of the Sun's disk.  Furthermore, in order to photograph the Sun's corona during totality, the focal 
length should be no longer than 1500 mm to 1800 mm (for 35 mm equipment).  For any particular focal 
length, the diameter of the Sun's image is approximately equal to the focal length divided by 109.
	A mylar or glass solar filter must be used on the lens at all times for both photography and safe 
viewing.  Such filters are most easily obtained through manufacturers and dealers listed in Sky & Telescope 
and Astronomy magazines.  These filters typically attenuate the Sun's visible and infrared energy by a factor 
of 100,000.  However, the actual filter attenuation and choice of ISO film speed will play critical roles in 
determining the correct photographic exposure.  A low to medium speed film is recommended (ISO 50 to 
100) since the Sun gives off abundant light.  The easiest method for determining the correct exposure is 
accomplished by running a calibration test on the uneclipsed Sun.  Shoot a roll of film of the mid-day Sun 
at a fixed aperture [f/8 to f/16] using every shutter speed between 1/1000 and 1/4 second.  After the film is 
developed, the best exposures are noted and may be used to photograph all the partial phases since the Sun's 
surface brightness remains constant throughout the eclipse.  
	Certainly the most spectacular and awe inspiring phase of the eclipse is totality.  For a few brief 
minutes, the Sun's pearly white corona, red prominences and chromosphere are visible.  The great challenge 
is to obtain a set of photographs which capture some aspect of these fleeting phenomena.  The most 
important point to remember is that during the total phase, all solar filters must be removed!  The corona 
has a surface brightness a million times fainter than the photosphere, so photographs of the corona are made 
without a filter.  Furthermore, it is completely safe to view the totally eclipsed Sun directly with the naked 
eye.  No filters are needed and they will only hinder your view.  The average brightness of the corona varies 
inversely with the distance from the Sun's limb.  The inner corona is far brighter than the outer corona.  
Thus, no one exposure can capture its the full dynamic range.  The best strategy is to choose one aperture 
or f/number and bracket the exposures over a range of shutter speeds (i.e. - 1/1000 down to 1 second).  
Rehearsing this sequence is highly recommended since great excitement accompanies totality and there is 
little time to think.
	Exposure times for various combinations of film speeds (ISO), apertures (f/number) and solar 
features (chromosphere, prominences, inner, middle and outer corona) are summarized in Table 15.  To use 
the table, first select the ISO film speed in the upper left column.  Now, move to the right to the desired 
aperture or f/number for the chosen ISO.  The shutter speeds in that column may be used as starting points 
for photographing various features and phenomena tabulated in the 'Subject' column at the far left.  For 
example, to photograph prominences using ISO 100 at f/11, the table recommends an exposure of 1/500.  
Alternatively, you can calculate the recommended shutter speed using the 'Q' factors tabulated along with 
the exposure formula at the bottom of Table 15.  Keep in mind that these exposures are based on a clear sky 
and an average corona.  You should bracket your exposures to take into account the actual sky conditions 
and the variable nature of these phenomena. 
	Another interesting way to photograph the eclipse is to record its various phases all on one frame.  
This is accomplished by using a stationary camera capable of making multiple exposures (check the camera 
instruction manual).  Since the Sun moves through the sky at the rate of 15 degrees per hour, it slowly 
drifts through the field of view of any camera equipped with a normal focal length lens (i.e. - 35 to 50 mm).  
If the camera is oriented so that the Sun drifts along the frame's diagonal, it will take over three hours for 
the Sun to cross the field of a 50 mm lens.  The proper camera orientation can be determined through trial 
and error several days before the eclipse. This will also insure that no trees or buildings obscure the camera's 
view during the eclipse.  The Sun should be positioned along the eastern (left) edge or corner of the 
viewfinder shortly before the eclipse begins.  Exposures are then made throughout the eclipse at five minute 
intervals.  The camera must remain perfectly rigid during this period and may be clamped to a wall or fence 
post since tripods are easily bumped.  The final photograph will consist of a string of Suns, each showing a 
different phase of the eclipse.
	Finally, an eclipse effect which is easily captured with point-and-shoot or automatic cameras 
should not be overlooked.  During the eclipse, the ground under nearby shade trees is covered with small 
images of the crescent Sun.  The gaps between the tree leaves act like pinhole cameras and each one projects 
its own tiny image of the Sun.  The effect can be duplicated by forming a small aperture with one's hands 
and watching the ground below.  The pinhole camera effect becomes more prominent with increasing 
eclipse magnitude.  Virtually any camera can be used to photograph the phenomenon, but automatic 
cameras must have their flashes turned off since this will obliterate the pinhole images.
	For more information on eclipse photography, observations and eye safety, see FURTHER 
READING in the BIBLIOGRAPHY.

CONTACT TIMINGS FROM THE PATH LIMITS

	Precise timings of second and third contacts, made near the northern and southern limits of the 
umbral path (i.e. - the graze zones), are of value in determining the diameter of the Sun relative to the 
Moon at the time of the eclipse.  Such measurements are essential to an ongoing project to monitor 
changes in the solar diameter.  Due to the conspicuous nature of the eclipse phenomena and their strong 
dependence on geographical location, scientifically useful observations can be made with relatively modest 
equipment.  Inexperienced observers are cautioned to use great care in making such observations.  The safest 
timing technique consists of the inspection of a projected image of the rather than direct viewing of the 
solar disk.  The observer's geodetic coordinates are required and can be measured from USGS or other large 
scale maps.  If a map is unavailable, then a detailed description of the observing site should be included 
which provides information such as distance and directions of the nearest towns/settlements, nearby 
landmarks, identifiable buildings and road intersections.  Alternatively, beacon devices are commercially 
available (~$500 US) which provide the user's location via global positioning satellites.   The method of 
contact timing should also be described, along with an estimate of the error.  The precisional requirements 
of these observations are ±0.5 seconds in time, 1" (~30 meters) in latitude and longitude, and ±20 meters 
(~60 feet) in elevation.  The International Occultation Timing Association (IOTA) coordinates observers 
world-wide during each eclipse.  For more information, contact:

				Dr. David W. Dunham/IOTA
				7006 Megan Lane
				Greenbelt, MD 20770-3012
				U. S. A.

Send reports containing graze observations, eclipse contact and Baily's bead timings, including those made 
anywhere near or in the path of totality or annularity to:

				Dr. Alan D. Fiala
				Orbital Mechanics Dept.
				U. S. Naval Observatory
				3450 Massachusetts Ave., NW
				Washington, DC 20392-5420

PLOTTING THE PATH ON MAPS

	If high resolution maps of the umbral path are needed, the coordinates listed in Table 7 are 
conveniently provided at 1û increments of longitude to assist plotting by hand.  The path coordinates in 
Table 3 define a line of maximum eclipse at five minute increments in Universal Time.  It is also advisable 
to include lunar limb corrections to the northern and southern limits listed in Table 6, especially if 
observations are planned from the graze zones.  Global Navigation Charts (1:5,000,000), Operational 
Navigation Charts (scale 1:1,000,000) and Tactical Pilotage Charts (1:500,000) of many parts of the world 
are published by the Defense Mapping Agency.  In October 1992, the DMA discontinued selling maps 
directly to the general public.  This service has been transferred to the National Ocean Service (NOS).  For 
specific information about map availability, purchase prices, and ordering instructions, contact the NOS at:

				National Ocean Service
				Distribution Branch
				N/GC33
				6501 Lafayette Avenue
				Riverdale, MD 20737, USA 		Phone:	 1-301-436-6990

	It is also advisable to check the telephone directory for any map specialty stores in your city or 
metropolitan area.  They often have large inventories of many maps available for immediate delivery.

ALGORITHMS, EPHEMERIDES AND PARAMETERS

	Algorithms for the eclipse predictions were developed by Espenak primarily from the Explanatory 
Supplement [1974] with additional algorithms from Meeus, Grosjean and Vanderleen [1966].  The solar and 
lunar ephemerides were generated from the JPL DE200 and LE200, respectively.  All eclipse calculations 
were made using a value for the Moon's radius of k=0.2722810 for umbral contacts, and k=0.2725076 
[adopted IAU value] for penumbral contacts.  Center of mass coordinates were used except where noted.  An 
extrapolated value for ÆT of 59.5 seconds was used to convert the predictions from Terrestrial Dynamical 
Time to Universal Time.
	The primary source for geographic coordinates used in the local circumstances tables is The New 
International Atlas (Rand McNally, 1991).  Elevations for major cities were taken from Climates of the 
World (U. S. Dept. of Commerce, 1972).

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

	Most of the predictions presented in this publication were generated on a Macintosh IIfx. 
Additional computations, particularly those dealing with Watts' datum and the lunar limb profile were 
performed on a DEC VAX 11/785 computer.  Word processing and page layout for the publication were 
done on a Macintosh using Microsoft Word v5.1.  Figure annotation was done with Claris MacDraw Pro.
	We thank Francis Reddy who helped develop the data base of geographic coordinates for major 
cities used in the local circumstances predictions.  Dr. Wayne Warren graciously provided a draft copy of the 
IOTA Observer's Manual for use in describing contact timings near the path limits.  We also want to thank 
Dr. John Bangert for several valuable discussions and for sharing the USNO mailing list for the eclipse 
Circulars.  The format and content or this work has drawn heavily upon over 40 years of eclipse Circulars 
published by the U. S. Naval Observatory.  We owe a debt of gratitude to past and present staff of that 
institution who have performed this service for so many years.  In particular, we would like to recognize the 
work of Julena S. Duncombe, Alan D. Fiala, Marie R. Lukac, John A. Bangert and William T. Harris.  Dr. 
Jay M. Pasachoff kindly reviewed the manuscript and offered a number of valuable suggestions.  The 
support of Environment Canada is acknowledged in the acquisition and arrangement of the weather data.  
Finally, the authors thank Goddard's Laboratory for Extraterrestrial Physics for several minutes of CPU 
time on the LEPVX2 computer.
	The names and spellings of countries, cities and other geopolitical regions are not authoritative, 
nor do they imply any official recognition in status.  Corrections to names, geographic coordinates and 
elevations are actively solicited in order to update the data base for future eclipses.  All calculations, 
diagrams and opinions presented in this publication are those of the authors and they assume full 
responsibility for their accuracy.


BIBLIOGRAPHY

REFERENCES

Bretagnon, P. and Simon, J. L., Planetary Programs and Tables from Ð4000 to +2800, Willmann-Bell, 
Richmond, Virginia, 1986.
Chou, B. R., "Safe Solar Filters," Sky & Telescope, August 1981, p. 119.
Climates of the World, U. S. Dept. of Commerce, Washington DC, 1972.
Dunham, J. B, Dunham, D. W. and Warren, W. H., IOTA Observer's Manual, (draft copy), 1992.
Espenak, F., Fifty Year Canon of Solar Eclipses: 1986 - 2035, NASA RP-1178, Greenbelt, MD, 1987.
Explanatory Supplement to the Astronomical Ephemeris and the American Ephemeris and Nautical 
Almanac, Her Majesty's Nautical Almanac Office, London, 1974.
Herald, D., "Correcting Predictions of Solar Eclipse Contact Times for the Effects of Lunar Limb 
Irregularities," J. Brit. Ast. Assoc., 1983, 93, 6.
Marsh, J. C. D., "Observing the Sun in Safety," J. Brit. Ast. Assoc., 1982, 92, 6.
Meeus, J., Grosjean, C., and Vanderleen, W., Canon of Solar Eclipses, Pergamon Press, New York, 1966.
Morrison, L. V., "Analysis of lunar occultations in the years 1943-1974É," Astr. J., 1979, 75, 744.
Morrison, L.V. and Appleby, G.M., "Analysis of lunar occultations - III. Systematic corrections to Watts' 
limb-profiles for the Moon," Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc., 1981, 196, 1013. 
The New International Atlas, Rand McNally, Chicago/New York/San Francisco, 1991.
van den Bergh, Periodicity and Variation of Solar (and Lunar) Eclipses, Tjeenk Willink, Haarlem, 
Netherlands, 1955.
Watts, C. B., "The Marginal Zone of the Moon," Astron. Papers Amer. Ephem., 1963, 17, 1-951.

FURTHER READING

Allen, D. and Allen, C., Eclipse, Allen & Unwin, Sydney, 1987.
Astrophotography Basics, Kodak Customer Service Pamphlet P150, Eastman Kodak, Rochester, 1988.
Brewer, B., Eclipse, Earth View, Seattle, 1991.
Covington, M., Astrophotography for the Amateur, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1988.
Espenak, F., "Total Eclipse of the Sun," Petersen's PhotoGraphic, June 1991, p. 32.
Fiala, A. D., DeYoung, J. A. and Lukac, M. R., Solar Eclipses, 1991-2000, USNO Circular No. 170, 
U.ÊS. Naval Observatory, Washington, DC, 1986.
Littmann, M. and Willcox, K., Totality, Eclipses of the Sun, University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu, 1991.
Lowenthal, J., The Hidden Sun: Solar Eclipses and Astrophotography, Avon, New York, 1984.
Mucke, H. and Meeus, J., Canon of Solar Eclipses: Ð2003 to +2526, Astronomisches BŸro, Vienna, 1983.
North, G., Advanced Amateur Astronomy, Edinburgh University Press, 1991.
Oppolzer, T. R. von, Canon of Eclipses, Dover Publications, New York, 1962.
Pasachoff, J. M. and Covington, M., Cambridge Guide to Eclipse Photography, Cambridge University 
Press, Cambridge and New York, 1993.
Pasachoff, J. M. and Menzel, D. H., Field Guide to the Stars and Planets, 3rd edition, Houghton Mifflin, 
Boston, 1992.
Sherrod, P. C., A Complete Manual of Amateur Astronomy, Prentice-Hall, 1981.
Sweetsir, R. and Reynolds, M., Observe: Eclipses, Astronomical League, Washington, DC, 1979.
Zirker, J. B., Total Eclipses of the Sun, Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York, 1984.

1 The instant of greatest eclipse occurs when the distance between the Moon's shadow axis and Earth's 
geocenter reaches a minimum.  Although greatest eclipse differs slightly from the instants of greatest 
magnitude and greatest duration (for total eclipses), the differences are usually negligible. 
2 Eclipse magnitude is defined as the fraction or percentage of the Sun's diameter occulted by the Moon.  
It's usually expressed at greatest eclipse.  Eclipse magnitude is strictly a ratio of diameters and should not 
be confused with eclipse obscuration which is a measure of the Sun's surface area occulted by the Moon.
3 ÆT is the difference between Terrestrial Dynamical Time and Universal Time
4 Eclipse obscuration is defined as the fraction of the Sun's surface area occulted by the Moon.
5 First contact is defined as the instant of external tangency between the Sun and Moon; it marks the 
beginning of the partial eclipse.
	Second and third contacts define the two instants of internal tangency between the Sun and Moon; they 
signify the commencement and termination of the umbral (total or annular) phase.
	Fourth contact is the instant of last external contact and it marks the end of the partial eclipse.
6 P is defined as the contact angle measured counter-clockwise from the north point of the Sun's disk.
	V is defined as the contact angle measured counter-clockwise from the zenith point of the Sun's disk.
7 For partial eclipses, maximum eclipse is the instant when the greatest fraction of the Sun's diameter is 
occulted.  For umbral eclipses (total or annular), maximum eclipse is the instant of mid-totality or mid-
annularity.
8 Gamma is measured in Earth radii and is the minimum distance of the Moon's shadow axis from Earth's 
center during an eclipse.  This occurs at and defines the instant of greatest eclipse.  Gamma takes on 
negative values when the shadow axis is south of the Earth's center.
9  Matveev, V.L. and V.I. Titov, 1985: Data concerning climate structure and variability: global cloudiness 
fields. Soviet Scientific Research Institute for Hydrometeorological Information - World Data Center.